English Ivy - Hedera helix

• Family:(Araliaceae) - Ivy Family^[E-flora]
• Other Names: Ivy, Algerian ivy, Baltic Ivy, Common Ivy. ^[E-flora]

Identification

"Hedera helix is an evergreen Climber growing to 15 m (49ft) by 5 m (16ft) at a medium rate.
It is hardy to zone (UK) 5 and is not frost tender. It is in leaf 12-Jan It is in flower from Oct to November, and the seeds ripen from May to June. The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Bees, flies, lepidoptera.It is noted for attracting wildlife.
Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and can grow in heavy clay and nutritionally poor soils. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils and can grow in very alkaline soils.
It can grow in full shade (deep woodland) semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It prefers moist or wet soil and can tolerate drought. It can tolerate atmospheric pollution."[PFAF]

• Synonyms
  • ''Hedera helix var. hibernica G. Kirchn. ^[E-flora]
  • Hedera poetica Salisb. [Illegitimate] ^[PFAF]
• Introduction: English Ivy is a perennial evergreen vine that is commonly cultivated throughout North America. It frequently escapes and becomes invasive in natural areas, particularly near uban centres. ^[E-flora]
• General: Evergreen climbing shrub with short aerial roots; stems up to 30 m tall. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
  
• Leaves: Stem leaves alternate, evergreen, entire to 3-5 lobed, 4-10 cm long, leathery, glossy, with long stalks, broadly egg-shaped to triangular. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
  
• Flowers: Inflorescence of 1-several, terminal, globose umbels in a racemose arrangement; flowers greenish-yellow, globose. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
  
• Fruits: Bluish-black berries, 2-5 seeded, 6-9 mm. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
• Habitat / Range Moist to mesic disturbed areas and forest floors and trees in the lowland zone; frequent in SW BC, known from SE Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands and adjacent mainland; introduced from Eurasia. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]} Woodlands, hedges and shady places, climbing up trees, walls etc and clambering over the ground[7]. Found on all types of soils[7]. Europe, including Britain, south and east to the Mediterranean and Iran.[PFAF]^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
  
• Origin Status: Exotic/Native ^[E-flora]
• USDA Blooming Period: Late Spring ^{[USDA-E-flora]}

Hazards

The plant is said to be poisonous in large doses[7, 10, 65, 76] although the leaves are eaten with impunity by various mammals without any noticeable harmful affects. The leaves and fruits contain the saponic glycoside hederagenin which, if ingested, can cause breathing difficulties and coma[274]. The sap can cause dermatitis with blistering and inflammation. This is apparently due to the presence of polyacetylene compounds[274]. ^[PFAF] Health risks or side effects following the proper administration of designated therapeutic dosages are not recorded. The drug has a medium potential for sensitization through skin contact.^[PDR]

• Contact Dermatitis: Falcarinol is a constituent of Hedera helix (Araliaceae) and several other plants, and is known to cause contact dermatitis in certain individuals when the plants are handled. ^{[MNP Dewick]}Allergic sensitization to this plant is common and can cause severe allergic reactions, particularly contact dermatitis.^{[HPIP Shih]} Can cause contact allergy (BIS). [HMH Duke]
• Berries & Leaf: Toxin: Hederin, a saponin. There are no adequately documented human poisonings, and clinical descriptions are based on the nature of the toxin. Most ingestions should cause little to no toxicity. The saponins are poorly absorbed, but with large exposures, gastrointestinal symptoms of nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramping, and diarrhea may occur. ^{[HPIP Shih]} The berries and leaves are poisonous, and they can cause vomiting and diarrhoea, though serious only in small children (North). Of course, birds eat them, and it is doubtful whether animals have been poisoned with ivy. In some areas it used to be strewn on the fields for cattle and sheep to eat, and it is often given to sick animals. Perhaps they would have to eat a very large amount before feeling any effects (Long. 1910). ^{[DPL Watts]}
• Management: If severe gastrointestinal symptoms occur, intravenous hydration, antiemetics, and electrolyte replacement may be necessary for patients with severe gastrointestinal symptoms, particularly children. ^{[HPIP Shih]}

Uses

The leaf contains circa 10% saponin and has been used for washing wool. Leaves boiled with soda are said to be suitable for washing clothes. Young twigs are a source of yellow and brown dye. Hardwood can be used as a boxwood substitute in engraving. Extracts are found in French massage creams and soaps. Ivy leaves were once bruised, gently boiled in wine, and drunk to alleviate intoxication by wine. Flowers, decocted in wine, were used for dysentery. Plant said to have been used as an emetic and narcotic on at least three continents. Tender ivy twigs, boiled in butter, were a primitive approach to remove sunburn.^[MPB-Duke]

Edible Uses

Although they are almost certainly not edible, there is a report that the seeds contain 16.2% protein and 35.1% fat[218]. ^[PFAF]

• Alcoholic Beverage Additive: Ivy ale was a highly intoxicating medieval drink, still made, according to Graves... He goes into no details, but it is to be assumed that this is a conventional brew laced with ivy leaves, in which case it certainly would be highly intoxicating, for ivy leaves are poisonous, producing a narcotic effect not unlike that of atropine (Jordan)." ^{[DPL Watts]}

Other Uses

• Dye: A yellow and a brown dye are obtained from the twigs[46, 61].^[PFAF].
  
• Leaves: A decoction of the leaves is used to restore black fabrics[7, 46, 53] and also as a hair rinse to darken the hair[7, 53]. ^[PFAF]
  
• Soap: If the leaves are boiled with soda they are a soap substitute for washing clothes etc[61]. ^[PFAF]
  
• Veterinary Aid: It seems that there was an Irish belief that a cow’s sore eyes could be cured simply by hanging an ivy leaf over the chimney. As it dried, so would the soreness go (O’Farrell).^{[DPL Watts]}
• Wood: The wood is very hard and can be used as a substitute for Buxus sempervirens (Box), used in engraving etc[46, 61]. Another report says that the wood is very soft and porous and is seldom used except as a strop for sharpening knives[4]. ^[PFAF] In Dalmatia they used to make ivy-wood cups from which to serve drinks at Christmas. ^{[DPL Watts]}

Medicinal Uses

Ivy is a bitter aromatic herb with a nauseating taste[238]. It is often used in folk herbal remedies[218], especially in the treatment of rheumatism and as an external application to skin eruptions, swollen tissue, painful joints, burns and suppurating cuts[9, 238]. ^[PFAF]

• Leaves:'The leaves are harvested in spring and early summer, they are used fresh and can also be dried[9]. ^[PFAF] Recent research has shown that the leaves contain the compound 'emetine', which is an amoebicidal alkaloid, and also triterpene saponins, which are effective against liver flukes, molluscs, internal parasites and fungal infections[238]. ^[PFAF]
  
  • The fresh leaves have a balsamic odor, especially when rubbed, and a bitterish, harsh, unpleasant taste. They are used for dressing issues, and, in the form of decoction, have been recommended in sanious ulcers and cutaneous eruptions, particularly tetter and the itch. ^{[Remington USD20]}
  • Eye Medicine: A leaf infusion was still in use in the 20th century as an eye lotion (Rorie), interesting, for Gerard recommended the same treatment four hundred years ago. Even more interesting is the fact that in homeopathy, a tincture of the young leaves is used to treat cataract to this day (Schauenberg & Paris). Lady Gregory recorded a belief from the west of Ireland that “a cure can be made for bad eyes from the ivy that grows on a white-thorn bush”. ^{[DPL Watts]}
  • Dosage Fresh Tincture [1:2] 15-30 drops as needed for for topical use. ^{[Moore (1995)]} 0.5 g/cup tea 1–3 ×/day (APA); 0.3 g leaf/day (KOM; PIP); 0.5 tsp (1 g) powdered leaf (MAD); 1 tsp herb/0.25 cup water, steep 10 min, 1–3 ×/day (PHR). ^{[HMH Duke]}
  • Corns & Warts: A widespread, and favourite, use of ivy leaves is for corns. From the island of South Uist in the Outer Hebrides, to Cornwall, the remedy is still in use. The Hebridean practice is to put a poultice of ivy leaves and vinegar on the corn (Shaw), and Ruth Tongue reported exactly the same procedure in Somerset. They say in Cornwall that corns will drop out in about a week after putting bruised ivy leaves on them (Deane & Shaw); exactly the same as claimed in Ireland – if the corn is still there after a few days, then a handful of ivy leaves is put to steep in a pint of vinegar in a tightly corked bottle for a couple of days. Then the liquid is carefully put on the corn, taking care that it does not get on the skin (Logan). It is said that John Wesley, who walked enormous distances, used ivy leaves to soothe his tired feet (A W Hatfield); certainly, in his Primitive Physick, we find “Corns (to cure) … apply fresh ivy leaves daily and in 15 days they will drop out”. It is still done in the Lowlands (Rorie. 1914); in the Highlands, it was said you had to heat the leaf (Polson). Warts, too, are occasionally treated by applying an ivy leaf to them (Newman & Wilson), and a wart charm was still in use in Essex in the 1950s. A hole was pricked in an ivy leaf for each wart, and the leaf was then impaled on a thorn in the hedge (Mabey. 1998).^{[DPL Watts]} Usually the leaves were soaked in vinegar to soften them and then bound on as a poultice; less often, they were boiled and the resulting liquid rubbed in; more simply still, the leaves were worn inside a sock. Reputedly, the corn dropped off in a matter of days, without any pain.^[MPFT]
  • Other External Uses: A boiled leaf also poulticed chilblains in Meath22 and Wicklow,23 bad sprains in Donegal[24] and warts in Laois.25 In Waterford,26 on the other hand, a leaf had its outer skin scraped off and applied to sore lips. So great was the plant’s reputation for healing skin disorders that its use extended to ringworm in Leitrim,[27] measles in Tipperary[28] and skin cancer in the region east of Sligo.29 A cap made from the leaves [was placed] on the head of a child with eczema, apparently exclusive to parts of Scotland (Fife,[6] Colonsay[7] in the Inner Hebrides) and even more parts of Ireland. A remarkably similar distribution to that is shown by the records for treating burns and scalds with ointment made from the boiled leaves mixed with fat. ^[MPFT]
• Plant The plant is used internally in the treatment of gout, rheumatic pain, whooping cough, bronchitis and as a parasiticide[238]. Some caution is advised if it is being used internally since the plant is mildly toxic[7]. Excessive doses destroy red blood cells and cause irritability, diarrhoea and vomiting[238]. This plant should only be used under the supervision of a qualified practitioner[238]. ^[PFAF].
  
  • Pain Management: That the berries were eaten in Offaly and its neighbours[30] for aches and pains hints at an action akin to aspirin, which could account for the plant’s popularity in Wicklow[31] and Kerry[32] for easing coughs and colds or, in another part of the country,33 for clearing the chest in bronchitis. It could also account for the use of an extract of the leaves in Wexford[34] and Limerick[35] for back pain, though that could mean kidney trouble, for which the plant has also had its value in Roscommon[36] and for both that and jaundice in Cavan.37 ^[MPFT]
• Twigs: An infusion of the twigs in oil is recommended for the treatment of sunburn[4]. ^[PFAF]
  
• Berries: The berries, which have an acidulous, resinous, somewhat pungent taste, are said to be purgative and even emetic. Vandamme and Chevallier discovered in ivy seeds a peculiar very bitter alkaline principle, hederine. It is obtained by treating the seeds with calcium hydroxide, dissolving the precipitated alkaloid in boiling alcohol, and evaporating the alcoholic solution. (A, J. P ., xiii, 172.) ^{[Remington USD20]}
  • The berries have always been used medicinally. The 1610 manuscript already quoted claims that ivy berries would cure the pestilence, as well as boils, carbuncles and other skin diseases. The berries have to be taken from high up the climber, “not fro that which is foudne lowe by the grounde”. They had to be kept carefully until needed, when they would be powdered in a mortar and given in white wine.^{[DPL Watts]} "Irish faith in the berries as a cure for aches and pains is reflected by their being valued in Gloucestershire as very good for the nerves,13..."^[MPFT]
  • Toothache: Even in the 15th century the berries (with the vinegar panacea) were being recommended for toothache – “for aching of the hollow tooth. Take ivy-berries and seethe them well in vinegar and [take] the soup of the liquor all hot and hold it in the mouth till it be cold and then cast it out and take more. And do so three or four times and it shall heal without doubt, for it is a principal medicine therefor” (Dawson). ^{[DPL Watts]}
• Gum: From the trunks of old ivy plants, growing in the south of Europe and the north of Africa, a resinous substance exudes through incisions in the bark, which has been employed in medicine under the name of ivy gum. It is in pieces of various sizes, of a dark yellowish-brown color internally, of a vitreous fracture, pulverizable, yielding a lively orange-yellow powder, of a peculiar not disagreeable odor when heated or inflamed, and of a bitterish resinous taste. Its chief constituent is resin, though some pieces contain a considerable proportion of bassorin, and other large quantities of ligneous matter. It was formerly used as a stimulant and emmenagogue, but is now scarcely employed. Placed in the cavities of carious teeth, it is said to relieve toothache. The light and porous wood of the ivy is sometimes used for making issue-peas.^{[Remington USD20]}
  • Dosage: GUM. Tincture [1:5, 70% alcohol] 5-15 drops. It may be a topical irritant for a few individuals; test on inner wrist first if prone to dermatitis. ^{[Moore(1995)]}
• Wood Cups: Little ivy-wood cups used to be made, and children with whooping cough were made to drink their milk from them (Grigson) (cf the similar practice, using holly), These ivy cups were very extraordinary – Browne mentions a belief that they would separate wine from water, the wine soaking through, but the water not! ^{[DPL Watts]} Ireland’s valuing of the plant for coughs and colds is seemingly echoed in a belief in Shropshire that an infallible remedy for whooping cough is to drink from cups made from its wood.14 ^[MPFT]
• Leaves & Berries: It is said that the best way to treat mumps in adults is to take ivy leaves and berries internally, and to apply them externally (Page). Ivy vinegar from the berries was very popular at one time. It was used in London, for instance, during the plague (Putnam), like the strong-smelling herbs people carried round with them, and which are still in existence in the ceremonial nosegays carried by the monarch, and by judges. ^{[DPL Watts]}
• Unspecified Part:
  • Respiratory Conditions: "The German Commission E has approved the use of English ivy as a treatment for respiratory catarrhs and chronic inflammatory bronchial conditions.[10] There are some published studies on the use of English ivy leaves to treat coughs that suggest it has a very positive effect on coughs. These were open, uncontrolled studies but did include a significant number of participants.[22– 24]"^[CBMed]
• Homeopathic Use: English Ivy is administered in homeopathy for rachitic states. ^[PDR]
  • Homeopathic Dosage: 5 drops, 1 tablet or 10 globules every 30 to 60 minutes (acute) or 1 to 3 times daily (chronic); parenterally: 1 to 2 ml sc acute, 3 times daily; chronic: once a day (HAB1).^[PDR]

Misc Lore:

• Hair: A cap of ivy leaves worn on the head was supposed to stop the hair falling out (Leather), or to make it grow again when illness had caused it to fall. In Fifeshire, it is put on a child’s head for eczema (Rorie), and on the island of Colonsay, the leaves were sewn into children’s caps to stop sores (Murdoch McNeill). Gerard had been told something rather different – “the gum that is found upon the trunke or body of the old stock of ivie, killeth nits and lice, and taketh away haire” as against the ivy-leaf cap which stopped the hair from falling out. ^{[DPL Watts]}
• Some of the so-called medical practices are purely magical. From the Gironde, in France, there is a record of ivy-root necklaces (they had to be green, and an odd number of pieces) put round a baby’s neck to help teething (Sebillot). ^{[DPL Watts]}

(Hedera helix, H. spp)
Folk Name: Gort
Gender: Feminine
Planet: Saturn
Element: Water
Deities: Bacchus, Dionysus, Osiris
Powers: Protection, Healing
Ritual Uses: The thyrsus, used in worshipping Bacchus, was often wound round with ivy.
Magical Uses: Ivy is carried by women for good luck in general, and is worn by brides for this same reason. Where ivy grows or is strewn, it guards against negativity and disaster. Ivy is also used in fidelity and love charms. It is magically "paired" to holly.^{[EMH Cunningham]}

Herbal Use

• Medicinal Parts: The medicinal parts are the leaves and berries. English Ivy leaf consists of the dried leaves of Hedera helix
• Preparation: Prepare a tea by adding 1 heaped teaspoonful of drug to 1/4 liter of hot water and steeping the mixture for 10 minutes. A poultice is prepared by mixing fresh Ivy leaves 1:3 with linseed meal. To make an infusion, add 1 heaping teaspoonful of drug to one-quarter cup boiling water and steep for 10 minutes.
• Daily Dosage: Tea and other infusions can be taken internally 3 times daily. The average daily dose is 0.3 to 0.8g of drug. Fresh leaves may be laid upon festering wounds and burns; a decoction of fresh leaves (200 gm/liter water) may be used externally for rheumatism. The daily dose of a tincture is 40 to 50 drops; single dose: 5 to 10 drops. ^[PDR]

Phytochemicals

• Aerial Part: Oleanolic acid, %: 0.23 (as glycosides)
  • Leaf:
    • Essential oil: Germacrene D, b-elemene, g-elemene
      • Triterpenoids, %: 0.82–10.0
      • Oleanolic acid, %: 0.31 (as glycosides)
      • Sterols: Cholesterol, campesterol, stigmasterol,b-sitosterol, a-spinasterol, 5a-stigmastene-6-ol-3b
• Flower: Oleanolic acid, %: 0.18 (as glycosides)
  • Sterols: Cholesterol, stigmasterol, stigmastene-7-ol-3b, and sitosterine (as glycosides)
• Fruit:
  • Essential oil:''' Oleanolic acid, %: 0.28 (as glycosides)
    • Sterols: Cholesterol, stigmasterol, stigmastene-7-ol-3b, and sitosterine (as glycosides)
• Seed: Oil, % dry wt: 35.1 [2, 3] ^[LLCEOPS]

Pharmacology

• The leaves are antibacterial, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, cathartic, diaphoretic, emetic, emmenagogue, stimulant, sudorific, vasoconstrictor, vasodilator and vermifuge[7, 218, 238]. ^[PFAF]
• "...having a predominantly spasmolytic action but also a secretolytic and sedative effect that acts to reduce the number of attacks and the paroxysmal nature of the cough.[10] English ivy contains some 6% saponins, and it is postulated that its saponins are responsible for the plant’s expectorant actions. Saponins trigger responses in the gastric mucosa, which in turn activate mucous glands in the bronchi through parasympathetic signaling to aid in the removal of mucus.[10] It also contains falcarinol, which has been shown to have antibacterial, analgesic, and sedative effects." ^[CBMed]
• English Ivy [Leaves & Berries] is an expectorant and antispasmodic. In animal experiments, the drug is anti-exudative and cytotoxic. Hedera saponin C exhibits an antiviral, antibacterial, antimycotic, anthelmintic and mollusicidal, as well as an antiflagellate, effect. The fresh leaves are an irritant to the skin and mucosa and can have an allergenic effect.^[PDR]
• Abortifacient:Finally, there is a use of particular interest of which only a solitary record has come to light: a preparation of the leaves drunk as an abortifacient. This was a practice well known at one time to women in a village in (?) Wiltshire.42 ^[MPFT]
• Antifungal: The plant extract of H. helix has been shown to reduce incidence of apple scab and powdery mildew (Bosshard, 1992). Treatments of the extract showed consistently lower apple scab and mildew incidence than untreated control plots (Bosshard, 1992), but no commercialised product of H. helix is currently available [Lichtfouse CCI]
• Molluscicidal: H. helix contains a hederagenine glycoside with an LC₁₀₀ of 3 ppm against B. glabrata snails.^[Pest] "Four triterpenoid saponins with strung molluscicidal activity are found in the fruits of ivy (Hedera helix Araliacene), and others in the fruits of Lonicera japonica (Caprlfoliaceae)(Hostettmann, 1986). ^{[Seiger PSM]}

Cultivation

"Ivy is a very easily grown plant that dislikes waterlogged, very dry or very acid soils but otherwise succeeds in all soil types[1, 17, 238]. It grows well in heavy clay soils. Prefers some lime in the soil. Tolerates very dense shade[24, 31], though it may not flower in such a position[K]. The plant is very hardy and tolerant of atmospheric pollution[4]. Established plants are drought tolerant[190]. A very ornamental and hardy plant[190], it tolerates temperatures down to about -25°c[184]. There are many named varieties[190], the variegated forms are less hardy than the species and also require more light[238]. Ivy is a rampant climbing plant, clinging by means of aerial roots and often trailing on the ground in woods and hedges[186]. It is of benefit rather than harm when growing on a wall because it keeps the wall dry and acts as an insulation[11, 24]. It does not damage the structure of a wall. Similarly, it does not harm large trees when climbing into them, though it can shade out smaller and ailing trees[200]. It is not a parasitic plant, but instead obtains all its nutrient from the sun and the soil[186]. A very good plant for wild-life, it provides dense shelter for birds, spiders etc, an abundant late supply of nectar for insects and a supply of seeds for winter food[4, 24, 186]. It is a food plant for the larvae of many species of butterfly[24, 30]. A very variable plant, there are many named varieties. This species is notably resistant to honey fungus[200]. Special Features: Attractive foliage, Not North American native, Naturalizing, All or parts of this plant are poisonous, Inconspicuous flowers or blooms." ^[PFAF]

• Groundcover: An excellent ground cover for shady places, succeeding even in the dense shade of trees[197, 208]. A very effective weed suppresser[190]. The cultivars 'Hibernica', 'Lutzii' and 'Neilsonii' have been especially mentioned[190]. ^[PFAF]
• Hedge: Plants can be grown along fences to form a hedge. The variety 'Digitata' is very useful for this [200]. ^[PFAF]
• Air purifier: Plants have been grown indoors in pots in order to help remove toxins from the atmosphere. It is especially good at removing chemical vapours, especially formaldehyde[259]. The plants will probably benefit from being placed outdoors during the summer[259]. ^[PFAF]

Propagation

"Seed - remove the flesh, which inhibits germination, and sow the seed in spring in a cold frame[113]. Four weeks cold stratification will improve germination[113]. When they are large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into individual pots and grow them on in the cold frame for their first winter. Plant them out into their permanent positions in late spring or early summer, after the last expected frosts. Cuttings of half-ripe wood, July/August in a shady position in a frame. Good percentage[78]. Cuttings of mature wood, 12cm long, November in a cold frame[78]. Layering. Plants often do this naturally."^[PFAF]

References

• [DukePhyto] Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases. [Online Database] 03 March 2014.
• [E-flora] Accessed March 12, 2015, http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Hedera%20helix
• [PFAF]http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Hedera+helix, Accessed March 12, 2015
• [Pest] Phytochemicals for Pest Management: Current Advances and Future Opportunities, Stephen O. Duke , Scott R. Baerson, Charles L. Cantrell, David E. Wedge, Kumudini M. Meepagala, Zhiqiang Pan, Agnes M. Rimando1, Kevin K. Schrader, Nurhayat Tabanca, Daniel K. Owens and Franck E. Dayan, Natural Products Utilization Research, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 38677 University, MS, USA.